How We Got to Now: Six Innovations That Made the Modern World

How We Got to Now: Six Innovations That Made the Modern World by Steven Johnson is about how six important inventions shaped the world to today. Small ideas have big effects, and that many of the things we use every day came about in surprising and unexpected ways.¹ The book details the history of the six key innovations — Glass, Cold, Sound, Clean, Time, and Light. It explains how each one changed the world in ways that are often overlooked.

“Ideas are fundamentally networks of other ideas. We take the tools and metaphors and concepts and scientific understanding of our time, and we remix them into something new. But if you don’t have the right building blocks, you can’t make the breakthrough, however brilliant you might be.”

1. Glass

In the Middle Ages, people discovered how to make clear Glass, which led to important developments such as eyeglasses and microscopes. These tools helped people see better up close and far away and allowed scientists to study the world in new ways. For example, the invention of the microscope opened up a whole new world of tiny organisms, changing how we think about biology and medicine. Glass also played a significant role in the development of modern technology, like fiber optics, which are used today to send information over the internet.

Glass initially became more advanced during the Roman Empire, when glassmakers figured out ways to make the material sturdier and less cloudy. With the creation of glasses and printing, literacy rates rose dramatically, subversive scientific theories arose, and novels started being published.

Fiber-optic cables were much more efficient than copper for sending electrical signals over long distances. The backbone of the global internet is built now on networks of fiber-optic cables.

2. Cold

The invention of refrigeration transformed the way we live. Before refrigerators, people had to rely on ice to keep food fresh, and storing things for long periods was hard. Frederic Tudor, known as the “Ice King,” figured out how to ship ice from cold places to warmer countries in the 19th century. Later, inventors developed electric refrigeration, allowing people to keep fresh food and medicines in their homes. This innovation also changed how cities were built, as air conditioning made living comfortably in hot climates possible.

“Flash-freezing” food at extremely cold temperatures would allow it to stay very fresh after thawing; this process extended the reach of the food network in both time and space. Cooling technology eventually advanced so that we could flash freeze and cryopreserve human semen, eggs, and embryos.

3. Sound

Inventions like the phonograph, the radio, and the telephone allowed us to communicate over long distances and preserve music and voices. Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison are vital figures in this story. Their work helped create the technology that allows us to enjoy music, make phone calls, and listen to podcasts today. Sonar, used to detect objects underwater, has helped in fields like oceanography and warfare.

International calls brought the world closer together. The attempt to encrypt telephone calls later led to the digitization of sound, which could be transmitted and copied with perfect fidelity; this led to the rise of file-sharing services, streaming media, and the breakdown of traditional television networks.

4. Clean

The importance of cleanliness is something we take for granted today, but it wasn’t always so easy to stay clean and healthy. People didn’t understand how germs spread in the past, and cities were often full of disease. Advances in sanitation — like the creation of sewers and clean drinking water systems — made cities much healthier places to live. Inventions such as indoor plumbing and clean water supplies helped reduce diseases like cholera and typhoid. Today, we owe a lot to these innovations, which continue to save millions of lives.

Being clean advances the people and, thus, civilization. A civilized nation, region, or group of communities is considered “Developed” or “Civilized” once it understands and practices cleanliness.

5. Time

The invention of accurate timekeeping changed our lives. Before clocks, people had to rely on the sun to tell time, which wasn’t precise. The invention of the mechanical clock allowed people to measure time more accurately, which became essential for things like train schedules and coordinating activities across different cities. The need for precise timekeeping helped improve navigation, especially for sailors who used clocks to figure out their location at sea. Today, accurate timekeeping is critical for technology like GPS and the Internet.

The first atomic clocks were created in the 1950s, and were capable of measuring nanoseconds — a new level of accuracy. Nanosecond granularity becomes important for GPS signals that coordinate your location.

6. Light

Before electricity, people used candles and oil lamps to light their homes, but these were expensive and not very bright. The lightbulb’s invention was a game-changer, allowing people to have glowing, affordable light at all times of day. The development of photography and how capturing light on film revolutionized art and communication. Light plays an even more significant role today, with lasers used in everything from surgery to data storage.

Flash photography was first invented by combining magnesium with gunpowder to create a controlled small explosion of light; it became more mainstream twenty years later when two scientists combined magnesium with potassium chlorate.

The laser was later the result of a group of inventions in the 1960s; its first application was the bar-code scanner. Lasers are now being used to hopefully create a new energy source based on nuclear fusion.

For those interested in the idea of innovation and a bit of history about that, this book should be an entertaining read.